AAM Archive, Bodleian Library
Activism in the 80s
Apartheid
Overview
Apartheid (‘apartness’) was a unique system of racial segregation and white supremacy in South Africa.
The origins of apartheid can be linked to the arrival of European colonial powers in South Africa in the 17th century. The Dutch East India Company established a refreshment station at Cape of Good Hope in 1652, and this marked the beginning of European settlement in the region.
Colonial expansion led to the dispossession of indigenous communities of their ancestral lands. This marked the start of a pattern where European settlers seized control over fertile territories, displacing native populations.
The Dutch and later British settlers imported enslaved labour from various parts of Africa, Asia, and beyond to work on farms and in the burgeoning Cape Colony. This established a racialized hierarchy with Europeans at the top and enslaved individuals at the bottom.
Everett Collection Historical
Over time, the colonial authorities developed a rigid racial hierarchy, placing Europeans above all other racial groups. This hierarchy was rooted in false notions of racial superiority, which served to legitimize discriminatory practices.
The establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910 brought together previously independent colonies and solidified policies of racial segregation. The government's intent to maintain white supremacy was evident in its actions and policies.
In 1913, the South African government passed the Natives Land Act, which restricted black South Africans to designated reserves and prohibited land ownership outside these areas. This marked a significant step toward the formalization of racial segregation.
The National Party's victory in the 1948 election marked a turning point. They immediately began enacting apartheid laws that further entrenched racial segregation, such as the Population Registration Act and the Group Areas Act.
Black nannies sit on the grass looking after white children because the park bench is for whites only (AAM Archive, Bodleian Library)
Timeline
Nelson Mandela
The South African Native National Congress was founded in 1912 to defend the fundamental rights of black people and was later renamed the ANC. The ANC was led by a young lawyer, Nelson Mandela (who died in 2013), who had joined in 1944. Mandela later served in leadership roles within the ANC, where he re-energized the group and taught volunteers about nonviolent resistance. Mandela made it clear that the ANC would adhere to non-violence for as long as the conditions allowed.
In 1956, Mandela was arrested and charged with treason alongside 155 Congress Alliance members. Despite a lengthy trial, those arrested were no longer apprehended and released from prison. However, once Mandela returned home, he was arrested again and spent the next 27 years of his life in prison.
Photo: Shahidul Alam
During the 80s, apartheid faced continuous opposition within South Africa as well as global condemnation. 9 years later, governments lifted their ban on the ANC, releasing Mandela in 1990 alongside other political prisoners. In 1994, the first democratic election occurred with Mandela being chosen as the nation's first Black president.
Mandela, taken in Umtata in 1937
“I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.”
—Nelson Mandela, 20 April 1964.
Written by Ayah Khan
Bantu Stephen Biko
Bantu Stephen Biko died in 1977 having spent most of his life as a South African anti-apartheid activist. He led a grassroots anti-apartheid movement called the Black Consciousness Movement in the late 1960s and 1970s based on African nationalist and socialist ideas. While at university, he joined the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). He was furious that NUSAS and other anti-apartheid organizations were dominated by white liberals, not the black people affected by apartheid.
Photo: CSU Archives / Everett Collection
He was instrumental in establishing the Black People's Convention in 1972 to spread Black Consciousness ideologies to the public. In 1973, the government began to view them as a threat, issuing a ban against Biko in 1973 to obstruct his activities. However, Biko’s involvement in the anti-apartheid movement came to an end when he was detained in 1977 where he was beaten to death by state security agents. An estimated 20,000 people attended his funeral.
Written by Ayah Khan
Desmond Tutu
As a result of his nonviolent campaign against apartheid, Archbishop Desmond Mpilo Tutu (died in 2021) was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1984. Through his position in the Anglican Church, he raised awareness about the situation of black South Africans.
While Nelson Mandela and many African National Congress (ANC) rebel leaders were imprisoned in the 1980s, Tutu became the international face of the anti-apartheid struggle. Throughout the world, he inspired movements to boycott cultural and economic institutions to fight apartheid. When Mandela was released from prison after 27 years, he made a public speech with Tutu by his side.
Photo: David Pickoff
Tutu did his best exposing the struggle that black people faced against white power leading him to chair the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.
Written by Ayah Khan
Oliver Tambo
With Nelson Mandela, Oliver Tambo (who died in 1993) co-founded the ANC Youth League in 1944. Later, he went on to create the first black legal firm in 1952 in partnership with Nelson Mandela. He then became vice president of the ANC in 1958. However, following the Sharpeville Massacre (1960), the South African government effectively banned the ANC.
To establish the group's overseas headquarters, Tambo relocated to Lusaka, after leaving South Africa where he was in exile for 30 years. He was formally named president of the ANC in 1969.
Photo: United Archives / Sven Simon
Despite being in exile, Tambo's politics in South Africa dominated during the 1970s and 1980s. After apartheid began to crumble in the 1980s, business leaders and politicians flocked to Lusaka to speak with Tambo and his team.
However, Tambo suffered from a stroke causing him to relinquish the presidency of ANC to Mandela in 1991. As a result of Tambo's and Mandela's efforts, the ANC won the 1994 elections.
Written by Ayah Khan
Life Under Apartheid
Freedoms
Under apartheid, the freedoms of South Africa's non-white population were severely restricted. The government enacted a series of discriminatory laws that segregated people based on race, leading to the disenfranchisement of most of the population. Non-white South Africans were stripped of basic human rights and were subject to forced segregation and discrimination in all aspects of life. Freedom of movement was greatly restricted, and the Pass Laws required non-white citizens to carry identification documents and permits for travel, further limiting their mobility.
Photo: GRANGER - Historical Picture Archive
Rights
Apartheid fundamentally eroded the basic human rights of non-white South Africans. The regime's policies institutionalized racial discrimination and segregation, depriving individuals of the right to equal treatment under the law, the right to participate in government, and the right to education, among others. Moreover, the harsh security laws empowered the government to detain individuals without trial, denying their legal rights and freedom from arbitrary arrest.
Employment
Employment opportunities for non-white South Africans were severely limited under apartheid. The regime's policies dictated that they could only work in menial and low-paying jobs, with little hope of advancement. Black workers were subjected to oppressive labour laws, which included the reservation of skilled jobs for whites and the enforcement of low wages. This institutionalized inequality perpetuated economic disparities along racial lines and left many non-white South Africans in abject poverty.
Living Conditions
The living conditions for non-white South Africans under apartheid were deplorable. They were systematically segregated into overcrowded townships, which were characterized by inadequate housing, sanitation, and basic services. The government enforced policies that forced many non-white families to live in squalor, with limited access to clean water, electricity, and healthcare. In stark contrast, white South Africans enjoyed privileged living conditions, perpetuating a vast socio-economic gap.
Shacks on the veldt (AAM Archive, Bodleian Library)
Women
Non-white women in South Africa faced the double burden of gender and racial discrimination under apartheid. They were often marginalized and discriminated against in terms of employment, with limited access to economic opportunities. The apartheid regime's policies also affected family life, as it separated families and subjected them to harsh living conditions. In some cases, women were forced to endure the emotional and physical toll of forced removals and land dispossession.
Education and Children
Apartheid had a profound impact on the education of non-white children. The Bantu Education Act of 1953 led to the creation of a separate and inferior education system for non-white students. They received substandard education, often devoid of proper resources and opportunities for advancement. This not only limited their prospects but also entrenched racial divisions. Non-white children were subjected to an educational system designed to perpetuate the status quo, ensuring that they would be relegated to the lowest rungs of society.
Children in an overcrowded classroom (AAM Archive, Bodleian Library)
Leisure
Even leisure activities were segregated under apartheid. The Group Areas Act of 1950 designated certain areas for specific racial groups, including parks and recreational facilities. Non-white South Africans were often denied access to these areas, further limiting their ability to enjoy recreational and leisure activities. Additionally, laws and regulations imposed by the regime restricted the cultural expression and social gatherings of non-white communities, hindering their ability to foster a sense of identity and belonging.
Protest
Apartheid sparked a global outcry, with people from all corners of the world joining the movement against racial injustice in South Africa. International activists, celebrities, and ordinary citizens participated in protests, boycotts and campaigns to pressure the apartheid regime. Prominent figures like Martin Luther King Jr., who visited South Africa in 1966, used their platforms to draw attention to the plight of black South Africans. The United Nations also played a crucial role by passing resolutions condemning apartheid and imposing sanctions on South Africa.
Other African nations stood in solidarity with their South African counterparts, condemning apartheid and offering sanctuary to those who sought refuge from persecution. The formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963 marked a significant moment when African nations collectively voiced their opposition to apartheid. This continental unity provided not only moral support but also tangible aid, such as military and financial assistance, to the liberation movements fighting apartheid.
In the United Kingdom, British activists organized demonstrations, lobbied their government, and called for economic sanctions against South Africa. Universities and cultural institutions faced pressure to sever ties with the apartheid regime, resulting in the withdrawal from South African companies. The British protests questioned the involvement of institutions and individuals who had benefited from or stayed silent about apartheid.
School students protest in Cape Town (AAM Archive, Bodleian Library)
Forms of protest
Mass Demonstrations
Large-scale protests and demonstrations were common, often organized by anti-apartheid groups and attended by thousands of people. Iconic moments like the Soweto Uprising in 1976, where thousands of black students protested the compulsory use of Afrikaans in schools, left an indelible mark. The images of youthful defiance and subsequent government crackdowns drew global attention to the injustices at the heart of apartheid and served as a powerful visual symbol of resistance.
Police drag a young black student to a police van after rioting broke out on Wednesday, August 12, 1976 in the African township of Guguletu near Cape Town, South Africa | Associated Press
Boycotts
Economic and social boycotts became a key tactic in the struggle against apartheid. The international boycott of South African goods, along with academic and cultural boycotts, aimed to isolate the apartheid regime and pressure it to change. International solidarity played a crucial role, with individuals and organizations worldwide joining these efforts.
Civil Disobedience
Peaceful acts of civil disobedience, such as sit-ins, strikes, and non-cooperation campaigns, were widespread. The Defiance Campaign, a nonviolent resistance movement launched in 1952 by the African National Congress (ANC) and the South African Indian Congress, encouraged people of all races to defy unjust apartheid policies, such as pass laws and segregated public facilities, through acts of civil disobedience.
Police chasing demonstrators (AAM Archive, Bodleian Library)
Legal Challenges
Some activists used the legal system to challenge apartheid policies. The Rivonia Trial, where Nelson Mandela and others faced charges of sabotage and treason, showcased the commitment to justice within the legal framework. Mandela's defence and the global attention it received strengthened the anti-apartheid movement.
12/31/1961. Talking to Other Accused in the Treason Trial. (Album / Archivo ABC / Alamy Stock Photo)
International Diplomacy
South African activists and organisations, such as the African National Congress (ANC), sought support from the international community to pressure the apartheid regime through sanctions, resolutions, and diplomatic efforts.
Underground Resistance
In addition to public protests, many anti-apartheid activists operated underground, engaging in acts of sabotage, guerrilla warfare, and other forms of armed resistance. The armed struggle was led by groups like Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), the military wing of the ANC.
Artistic and Cultural Expression
Artists, musicians, and writers used their creative talents to critique apartheid and raise awareness. Songs like "Free Nelson Mandela" and works like Athol Fugard's plays became iconic symbols of resistance.
Community Organising
Grassroots organizing within local communities was a cornerstone of the anti-apartheid movement. Activists worked tirelessly to educate, mobilize, foster solidarity, and provide essential services to those affected by apartheid's policies.
International Solidarity
Many people and organisations around the world joined the anti-apartheid movement, participating in protests, boycotts, and divestment campaigns in solidarity with South African activists.
Education and Awareness
Informing the public about the realities of apartheid and its human rights abuses was a vital form of protest. This included publishing newspapers, distributing pamphlets, and hosting public lectures.
AAM Archive, Bodleian Library
Sharpeville Massacre of 1960
In the history of South Africa's struggle for racial equality, the Sharpeville Massacre of 1960 plays a pivotal role as this tragic event marked a turning point in the nation's path towards dismantling apartheid, shedding light on the oppressive system's brutality, and mobilising international condemnation.
Sharpeville, situated in the Gauteng province of South Africa, witnessed a devastating moment on March 21st, 1960, when thousands of Black South Africans gathered for a peaceful anti-passbook protest organized by the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC).
What was the passbook system?
The passbook system was one of apartheid's dehumanizing policies. Black citizens were required to always carry identification documents, severely restricting their freedom of movement. Blacks and ‘Coloured’ people were not allowed to work, pray, or pass the roads belonging to their white people. The protesters, driven by unwavering determination, surrendered their passbooks at the Sharpeville police station in an act of nonviolent resistance.
The atmosphere in Sharpeville that day was a blend of hope and courage as protesters sang freedom songs and carried signs with slogans such as "No Bail, No Defence, No Fine." However, the South African police responded with extreme force. They opened fire on the unarmed crowd, resulting in the tragic loss of 69 lives and leaving over 180 individuals injured.
Photo: World History Archive
The massacre pushed the South African government to escalate its repressive measures. A state of emergency was declared, the ANC and PAC were banned, and their leaders, including Robert Sobukwe of the PAC, were arrested. However, rather than quelling dissent, these actions intensified the resistance, underscoring the government's unwavering resolve to maintain power at any cost.
International outrage and condemnation followed as protests erupted worldwide, demanding an end to apartheid and the release of political prisoners, including Nelson Mandela. In the United Nations, the massacre prompted the adoption of Resolution 134, which called for the abolition of apartheid and further marginalized the South African government on the global stage.
On the domestic front, the Sharpeville Massacre had implications for South Africa's political landscape. The African National Congress (ANC), led by luminaries like Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo, adjusted its tactics from nonviolent resistance to armed struggle in response to the government's unyielding brutality. This strategic shift marked a significant watershed moment in the fight against apartheid.
Written by Khadijat Opemipo Akande
Photo: Pictorial Press
1976 Soweto Uprising
The Soweto uprising was a student-led protest that took place when the South African Apartheid Government decided to enforce Afrikaans as the main language used for teaching. The protest that took place on 16th June 1976 was intended to be a peaceful protest, however the students’ movement was disrupted by armed police, firing teargas and live ammunition. News of these events spread across the country leading to the Soweto uprising which lasted until 1977.
The education available for Black South Africans in 1976 was very limited; what was available was called the Bantu Education and although it was made compulsory by 1976, it was also made to shape black people to work as labourers, workers, and servants. The funding from these schools came solely from the taxes of black people. Leaving the schools sorely neglected and a lot of the teachers underqualified for their roles. Whilst the schools for white people had a larger amount of funding allowing white children to benefit from a better education system.
Afrikaans was only spoken by a small percentage of people living in South Africa during this time. Which is why there was so much resistance about the decision to make Afrikaans the primary language. It wasn't inclusive to a large part of the population and not only did many of the students not speak that language but not all the teachers were fluent enough to teach the syllabus in the same way that they would have before. They were not equipped with the right training or resources needed to teach all the students in this language.
Soweto school students protest against being forced to study in Afrikaans in 1976 (AAM Archive, Bodleian Library)
The students originally planned to start the protest at Orlando stadium and then make their way to the Department of Bantu’s regional offices. There they would give them a list of their concerns with the new school policy. However, the 10,000 students that had met to protest were intercepted by the Police before they could make it to the Department of Bantu’s regional offices. When the police started to throw teargas, the students reacted by throwing stones back at them. Some accounts of the events that took place that day also mention police dogs being let loose. By the time that the live ammunition was fired two students had died with several others injured.
Hastings Ndlovu, 15 years old and Hector Pieterson, 12 years old were the first two students that lost their lives in the Soweto uprising. As the riots continued to escalate, more people were injured or died. It is believed that it is possible that up to 700 people died because of these events with thousands more injured, including young children. At the time of the uprising the Apartheid Government ordered doctors to report to the police the names of anyone who came in with bullet wounds. However, some doctors falsified these records to protect their patients from being arrested for partaking in the uprising, which meant that the government was unable to accurately record the number of people killed or injured within the riots.
Officially, neither party was given blame for the riots that took place however, many students were prosecuted with association with the riots, whilst no one from the police force were punished or arrested for the events that took place. The uprising is considered to have played a critical role in dismantling the Apartheid Government in the 1990s and 16th June is now considered a national holiday in South Africa to pay tribute to the role that the young people of the riots played in achieving their freedom of segregation.
Article by Charice Wright
Soweto school students protest against being forced to study in Afrikaans in 1976 (AAM Archive, Bodleian Library)
End of Apartheid
After nearly five decades of institutionalized racial segregation and oppression, apartheid met its demise, heralding a new era of hope and reconciliation for the nation.
The release of Nelson Mandela in 1990 marked a turning point in the fight against apartheid. After 27 years of imprisonment, Mandela emerged as a symbol of hope and reconciliation. His leadership, along with that of other anti-apartheid activists, fostered dialogue and negotiations with the apartheid government.
Negotiations between the ANC and the apartheid government, facilitated by international mediation and strong domestic pressure, led to a series of ground-breaking agreements. The dismantling of apartheid laws, the 1993 multiparty negotiations, and the democratic elections of 1994 marked the peaceful transition to a post-apartheid South Africa.
The 1994 elections were a watershed moment. For the first time in South Africa's history, citizens of all races were allowed to vote in a democratic election. Nelson Mandela was elected as South Africa's first black president, symbolizing the triumph of justice and the promise of a united, non-racial democracy.
Cyril Ramaphosa, Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo | Photo: Sue Kramer
